Coordination and
Subordination
Coordination
occurs between expressions of equal importance whereas subordination
occurs between expressions of unequal importance (one clause subordinate
to the other). These two are achieved with the help of conjunctions known as
linking devices.
Linking devices (comparison,
contrast, additive, sequential)
Coordinators
and subordinators are devices that link one sentence to another. Coordinators
help form compound sentences and subordinators help form complex sentences.
1.1 Coordinators:
· The
‘and’ group (addition)
The day was warm and
humid.
She was both kind and gentle.
On the table there were cakes, biscuits and
sandwiches.
He took the lead and I followed him.
He
speaks French as well as writes it.
She not
only had the right qualifications but also experience appropriate to
the job.
Not
only was the coat soft; it was also warm.
You’re
getting promoted; besides/ also/ in addition/ moreover/
furthermore you’ll
be sent abroad for training.
· The
‘but’ group (contrasting two ideas –opposed to each other)
My boss was angry but he listened to me patiently.
My
boss was angry; yet/ still/ however/ nevertheless
he listened to me patiently.
In
spite of/ Despite/ Notwithstanding the fact that he
was angry, my boss listened to
me patiently.
· The
‘or’ group (choice)
Take it or leave it.
Either I am right or you are.
You
must improve your sales (or) else you’ll lose your job.
You
must improve your sales; otherwise you’ll lose your job.
Neither
Shyam nor Jalaja is telling the truth.
Shyam is not telling the truth, neither/ nor Jalaja is.
· The
‘so’ group (result)
It was getting dark, so we went home.
We
worked until six; then we went home.
He
broke the rules of the school; therefore/ consequently/ accordingly/
hence
he had to leave.
He’s
clever; only he can’t be trusted.
Sometimes
he is pleasant; again, he can be very unpleasant.
1.2 More about
‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘but’
i. and
· indicates sequence:
He
walked to his car and got into it.
He
lay on the bed and tried to sleep.
She
entered the church and knelt to pray.
· expresses result/consequence:
Miss another class and you’ll not be able
to sit for the exam.
I heard a commotion and went to see
what it was all about.
· introduces a contrast:
I am composed and my brother is
restless. (I am composed but my brother is restless)
Susan finds every moment exciting and
Sarah finds every moment dull.
(Susan finds every moment
exciting but Sarah finds every moment dull.)
· indicates the
second action as something unexpected:
He
ran hard and (yet) he couldn’t catch the thief.
(He ran hard but couldn’t catch
the thief.)
· implies a
promise:
Forget what you’ve seen and
(then) I won’t tell anyone what you did yesterday.
· suggests a condition:
Ask me no
questions and I’ll tell no lies. (If you ask no questions, I won’t have to tell
lies.
Give him an inch and he’ll take a
yard. (If you aren’t careful, he’ll outwit you.)
· conveys purpose:
Go and ask him what he wants.
I’ll come and see you soon.
We
stopped and bought some grocery.
Write
and ask him when he’s coming.
Come and help me to life this box.
· introduces a
comment or a question:
They dislike Murugan—and that’s
not surprising in view of his behaviour
‘They
talked for hours.’ ‘And what did they
decide?’
· communicates a threat:
One more word from you, and I phone the police.
Miss another class and you won’t be
allowed to write the exam.
· means addition:
Do it slowly and (also)
carefully.
Can you read and (also) write?
· adds emphasis:
I cooked lunch. And I ironed
clothes.
· shows that
something is repeated or continuing:
He tried and tried but
without success.
The headache got worse and
worse.
· shows important
differences between things/people of the same kind:
I like city life but there are cities
and cities.
Note:
Try and… can be used instead of try to… to express encouragement
or make
promises:
Try and talk to him.
Do
try and stop coughing.
I’ll
try and see you at the station.
I’ll try and have the work finished by the
weekend.
ii. Or
· means choice:
Take this shirt or that one.
Wait here or come with me.
· refers to approximation:
The fridge costs 15,000 or 16,000.
You may get 2 or 3% reduction.
It weighs a kilo or two.
· introduces
another possibility:
Is your sister older or younger than
you?
Are you coming or not?
· says why
something must be true:
You must like her, or you
wouldn’t be helping her.
· expresses uncertainty:
He’s a PR executive or
something.
· implies a negative
condition:
Give me some money or (else)
I’ll shoot.
Don’t be too long, or you’ll
miss the bus.
They must like the house, or
they wouldn’t be staying for so long.
iii. But
· expresses unexpectedness:
He is poor but he is happy.
[‘… and yet he is happy’]
He is rich but he is happy.
[if wealth is considered a source of misery]
· means however/despite:
I’d asked everybody but only
a few came.
By the end of the day we
were tired but happy.
· menas except:
I had no sign but to
resign.
· implies compulsion:
I’m sorry but I can’t stay
any longer.
We’re sorry but we must
report this.
· indicates
contrast:
I can’t attend the function
but my wife will.
He lied, yes, but he did it
to protect you.
The fourth
group of coordinators is prepositional phrases:
in addition, in fact, in the meanwhile, on the contrary
You’re getting promoted; in addition,
you’ll be sent abroad for training.
He doesn’t work hard; in fact, he’s
incapable of hard work.
I’ll see you again next week; in the
meanwhile, you must rest as much as possible.
It wasn’t terrible, as you imagined; on the
contrary, I enjoyed every minute of it.
The fifth
group of coordinators is: commas, semicolons, or colons
I looked round the room. Sam was repairing a TV
set, Gupta was attending a call, Sharma was
cleaning
up his desk. (commas)
He doesn’t work hard; he’s incapable of hard work. (semicolon)
He kicked open the door, revolver in hand: a dead man lay on the floor. (colon)
1. 3 Quasi-Coordinators
He writes lyrics as well as sing them.
They sell books as well as newspapers.
The speech addressed the young as much
as the old.
He is to be punished rather than (to
be) pitied.
We should take into account the motive
more than the amount itself.
His behaviour was unbecoming if not/
not to say rude.
As the speaker rose to speak, several
students left the hall, which was rude of them.
1.4 Correlative
Coordinators
The following expressions in italics
are correlative coordinators because they
reinforce the relationship between
expressions that are joined together:
I
have met both her mother and her father.
You have met either her mother or
her father.
Either he could not come or
he didn’t want to come.
I have met neither her mother nor
her father.
I haven’t met either her mother
or her father.
1.5 Other
coordinators
There
are others that function as coordinators:
I
played tennis, for my wife went shopping. (here the first results from
the second.)
furthermore,
besides,
You’re
getting promoted; moreover, you’ll be sent abroad for training.
also,
still
My
boss was angry; however, he
listened to me patiently.
nevertheless,
nonetheless,
It
was getting dark; consequently, we went home.
accordingly,
therefore
hence
We
worked until six; then we went home.
He’s
clever; only he can’t be trusted.
Sometimes
he’s pleasant; again, he can be very unpleasant.
These
link two simple sentences into compound sentences:
· further,
similarly, likewise, too ¬ addition
· first, in the
first place, next, second, last but not least,
last, finally, ultimately, in the
end
¬ sequence
· namely, that
is [to say], for instance, for example, indeed, regardless,
of course, after all, specifically ¬explanation
· hence, for
that reason ¬reason
· consequently, therefore, as a result ¬result
· under
these/such conditions, or else, with this condition/exception,
otherwise
¬condition/exception
· in the same
way, likewise, similarly ¬ comparison
· by contrast,
on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, even then, even so¬contrast
1.6 A few more
ways of Coordination
I gave my brother a bow tie, and
my sister-in-law a Banaras saree.
I had the kitchen painted yellow
and the living room blue.
I’m flying to Delhi tomorrow and
to Kolkota the day after.
I wrote a poem, and my
brother, a short story.
Sen completed the test in 40
minutes, and Babbar, in 50 minutes.
India won the Cup in 1987 and
the West Indies in 1991.
My brother writes excellent
short stories—and your brother, too.
My brother—and your brother,too—writes
excellent short stories.
I play table tennis, and
sometimes even chess.
I felt angrier and angrier.
We talked, talked and talked.
They kept talking, talking, talking all
night.
I’ve said it again and again, but no one takes
notice.
She
talked on and on and on.
There are teachers and teachers.
[roughly: ‘good and bad teachers’]
He is very, very, very good.
Go and ask him what he wants.
1.7 Idiomatic
uses of coordination
·
A small group of verbs can precede and to
give them a touch of informality:
I’ll try* and come
tomorrow.
Try and finish
quickly.
They sat and talked for hours.
Let’s sit and talk.
Let’s stop and look at the map.
He
stopped and bought some flowers.
Come
and have your dinner.
When
did she last come and see you?
I’ll go* and answer the door.
Go
and get me a glass of water.
I
wish the bus would hurry up and come.
Hurry
and open the present—I want to see what it is!
Note:
1. * Try cannot be used in the past tense: He tried and saw us yesterday. (x)
2. * Go can be used without ‘and’,
especially in AmE:
Go ask your mom! Go come tomorrow.
3. Several of these combinations
express speaker’s displeasure:
Don’t just stand there and
grin.
He went and complained about
us.
They’ve gone and upset her
again.
Run and tell him to come here
at once.
Why did you go and do a silly
thing like that?
· Adjectives
like nice, good can also be used in pseudo-coordination:
The room is nice and warm.
His speech was nice and short.
It was lovely and cool in
there.
The road is good and long. }
I hit him good and hard. }(esp in AmE)
She drove good and fast. }
1.8 The Intensifying use of coordination
More, less with adjectives or adverbs, or the –er
adjectives get repeated to indicate
the increase in intensity:
She became more and more
angry.
She became angrier and
angrier.
The car went more and more
slowly.
The car went slower
and slower.
The image on the screen
became duller and duller.
As time passed, she saw less
and less of all her old friends.
1.9 The continuative use of coordination
Verbs get repeated to indicate a repeated and continuing process:
He talked and talked and
talked.
We knocked and knocked.
They kept talking, talking,
talking all night long.
Adverbs also get repeated:
I’ve said it again and again,
but she still takes no notice.
He kept saying ‘I don’t know’
over and over.
She talked on and on and on.
The balloon went up and up
into the sky.
The balloon went up, up, up
until it was a tiny speck in the sky.
1.10 Other uses
of coordination
· Nouns are also
repeated to give different messages:
There are teachers and teachers.
[roughly: good and bad teachers]
You can doctors and doctors. [roughly: good and bad doctors]
There was nothing but rain, rain,
rain for almost a week. [nothing but rain]
· Adjectives and
intensifiers:
He was an old, old man. [a very
old man]
He’s very, very, very good, I tell
you. [extremely good]
· A noun phrase
with or so (to mean ‘approximately’):
The week or so I spent with
you is still fresh in my memory.
I stayed a day or so in the
hotel.
We were in Chennai only for a
day or two.
I only have a hundred or so.
Will that do?
· Note
the stereotyped expression:
He’s an out and out liar.
[=complete]
·
In informal speech, expressions like yes, no, well, OK, all right are often repeated for
emphasis.
1.11 Abbreviations for coordination
Incompletion of a list of items or
things is indicated by certain expressions and
abbreviations:
{so
on.
We discussed everything—when to start,
where to stay and {so forth.
{so on and so
forth.
The dances in the competition showed
their skills in Bharatha Natyam, Bangra,
Kutchipudi and the like.
(=similar types of dance)
We talked about the contract, pay etc.
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language is written by Quirk et al.
1.12 More about
Conjunctions
· Both, either, neither
Both…and expresses emphatically a
combination of two things:
The day was both
cold and wet.
Either…or expresses two alternatives emphatically:
You can have
either the blue one or the red one.
Either…or + negative verb and
neither…nor + affirmative verb express two
alternatives negatively:
I won’t either
agree or disagree= I’ll neither agree nor disagree.
1.13 Incomplete sentences
Generally, a conjunction cannot be used
with just one clause:
Because I was doing your shopping.
And this Tuesday was particularly
horrible.
As you know, a conjunction joins two
clauses, and the clauses are usually written as
one sentence.
But it’s possible to have two sentences
separate, with the conjunction being placed at
the beginning of the second sentence.
This happens
(i) in conversation
when two different people say the sentences:
‘Why are you
late?’ ‘Because I was doing your
shopping.’
(ii) when we give special
emphasis to the second sentence:
I hate Tuesdays.
And this Tuesday was particularly horrible.
1.14 Combining sentences without conjunctions
· prepositional
phrases
He always comes late; in fact, he’s
incapable of coming on time.
His performance hasn’t improved; on
the contrary, it has become worse.
But what we’re after is not your
concerns; on the other hand, the medical situation is
very much your concern.
While he drank the thin, oddly
brackish brew, he took the measure of the place. In
truth, there wasn’t much to
see.
· punctuation
marks
I looked around the room. Deena was
busy at his computer, Aanu was watching TV,
Babu was sleeping, Nirmala was on the
telephone. (commas)
It was Lindros who’d stood behind
Bourne, believed in him when the Old Man had put
out a worldwide sanction against
him. (commas)
He doesn’t work hard; he’s incapable
of hard work. (semi-colon)
You’ve done extremely well; I’m happy
about it. (semi-colon)
Once I was safe in my car—I checked
the backseat again before getting in—I locked
up. (dashes)
You’re not just answering to Ashes
anymore—you’re answering to me. (dash)
My mind tripped backward in time: I
remembered the foster-family Christmases,
when the real kids got the good
presents,… (colon)
Out on the street, he knew he had to
walk a number of blocks before he found a taxi
station: cabs were not the fashion
in this section of Montparnasse… (colon)
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2. Subordinators
Subordinating conjunctions connect pairs one of which is dependent on the other for
completion of its message.
2.1These conjunctions occur in
a. noun clauses
They wanted to know how I escaped.
He’s
quite confident that he’ll get the job.
I
asked her whose side she was on.
b. adjective clauses (=defining and non-defining relative)
The woman that/who is near the bank is a divorcee.
The
book that/which has topped today’s sales is written by my brother.
My
father, who had been on a visit to the States, has returned.
The
Appollo Hospital, which can boast of 10,000 by-pass surgeries every year, is in
India.
c. adverb clauses (=manner, time, reason, purpose, concession,
comparison, condition, result)
I’ll do as I wish. Who are you to interfere?
He ran as if his life depended on it.
Stay
where you are!
Take
the right fork when (where) the road splits into two.
I won’t
stop arguing until you see my way.
I sold my TV because it was old.
While you’re here, why don’t we discuss the
problem? (time and reason)
City schools close earlier than offices so that
traffic snarls can be averted.
Though it was an exciting game, no goals were
scored.
He ran so fast that I couldn’t catch him.
The job is not so/as easy as you think.
If you break the rule, you’ll be punished.
2.2 These convert simple sentences into
subordinate clauses:
· where, wherever, near, on the left, to the east ¬ spatial
relation
· as, after,
before, since, till, until, when, while, as soon as, immediately
as long as, no…sooner than, by the time ¬temporal
relation
· if,
immediately, unless, provided that, only if, lest, in case ¬condition
assuming,
considering, excepting, given, granted }that ¬condition
granting ,provided, providing, seeing, supposing }
· although,
though, even though, despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that,
even if
¬concession
· because, so,
since, in that, in as much as¬causal
· so that, in
that, in order that, for fear that, in the even that, such that¬purpose
· as, as
though, as if, like
¬manner
· more… than,
as…as, so…as, less…than ¬comparison
2.3 Other
subordinators
· as…so
· as }
}
so
}
} …as
such } }
· the the…
· At } the {first/next/ } {moment/instant/ } {that
}
from } {precise/very }{minute/time } {when}
· because of the
fact that }
due to the fact that }
on account of the fact that }= [because]
in the light of the fact that }
in spite of the fact that }
despite the fact that }= [although]
regardless of the fact that }
· Like and as
‘Like’ is placed before
nouns/pronouns:
He fought like a madman,
He ran like the wind.
They were all dressed as clowns.
But use ‘as’ before a clause of
comparison:
While in Rome, do as the Romans
do.
Note: I worked as a slave. (=I was a
slave)
I worked like a slave. (=I
worked very hard, but I was a free man)
· For and because
These have nearly the same meaning and
very often either can be used. But there
are some restrictions with regard to
‘for’:
1. A for-clause cannot be placed
before the main clause:
For it was raining heavily
he took a taxi. (x)
Because it was raining
heavily he took a taxi. (correct)
2. A for-clause cannot come before
‘not’, ‘but’ or any conjunction:
He stole not because he
wanted the money but because
he liked stealing.
(Here, ‘for’ is not possible.)
3. A for-clause cannot be used as
a response to a question:
‘Why did you do
it?’ ‘Because I was angry.’ (Here,
‘for’ is not possible.)
4. A for-clause provides new
information, and so cannot be used for repeating
information:
He spoke in German. She was
angry because he had spoken in German.
(Here, ‘for’ is not
possible.)
But
She was angry for she
couldn’t understand German. (Here ‘because’ is also
possible.)
· as, when, while
Use as when the second action
occurs before the completion of the first:
As I left the house, I
remembered the key.
Use when when the second action
occurs after the completion of the first:
When I left the house,
I remembered the key.
Use as for actions that progress
simultaneously (that continue to occur together):
As the sun rose the fog
dispersed.
Use when when one action occurs at
the same as another:
When it is wet the
buses are crowded.
As can mean while:
As I stood there I saw
a policeman enter the bank.
Note: There is no particular
advantage in using as here, and while is safer.
As can mean because:
As a father, I have to think of my children’s
future.
As can mean though:
Painful as it was, he
swung his legs and got gingerly to his feet (although it was
painful).
While can mean but and is used to
emphasize a contrast:
Some people waste food
while others haven’t enough.
While can mean although and is
placed at the beginning of a sentence:
While I am willing to
help, I do not much time available.
When can be used instead of while
in the meaning of although to introduce
an element of
unreasonableness:
How can they expect to
learn anything when they never listen?
2.4 Other
Subordinators
The following expressions in italics
are correlative subordinators:
The more money you have, the
more money you’ll want.
You didn’t tell me whether I
should write to the manager or whether I should see
him personally.
If this year’s harvest is
good, then we will not need to import wheat.
He doesn’t earn as much
as me.
I was more ashamed than
I have ever been.
He had no sooner arrived than
he asked for food.
[No sooner had he arrived than he
asked for food.]
2.5 Marginal
subordinators
The following expressions in italics
are marginal subordinators:
Even if you are ready for
reconciliation, he will not be ready.
If only you had let me know
about this, I could’ve helped you.
I recognized him the moment
I saw him.
Because of/Due to the fact that
they didn’t read English, the villagers were
unaware of what they were
signing.
Note: Avoid saying ‘…the fact that’;
prefer ‘because’.
In spite of/Despite the fact
that I worked very hard, I wasn’t promoted.
Note: Avoid saying ‘…the fact that’; use
‘though’, instead.
3. Errors:
The
following errors can crop up while using conjunctions:
i.
double conjunctions:
Although she was tired, but
she went to work.
Because I liked him, so I went
out with him.
As you know, that I work hard.
Use only one conjunction:
Although she was tired, she went to
work.
or
She was tired, but she went to
work.
Because I liked him, I went
out with him.
or
I liked him, so I went out
with him.
As you know, I work very
hard.
or
You know that I work very
hard.
Note:
two conjunctions can be used to join in to one more than two sentences:
Although she was tired, she went
to work but she didn’t stay there long.
ii.
Putting that together with ‘how’, ‘where’ or ‘whether’:
I asked her that how she was
getting on with her boss.
I wondered that where she lived.
I asked him that whether he
understood my explanation.
To
make these sentences acceptable remove ‘that’.
iii.
Use of ‘it’ in relative clauses:
She never listens to the advice
which I give it to her.
In
this sentence, ‘which’ and ‘it’ refer to ‘advice’. Here are two sentences
combined as one:
She never listens to the advice.
I give advice to her.
We
join these two sentences with ‘which’ replacing ‘advice’ of the second
sentence, so there is no need for the pronoun ‘it’.
She never listens to the advice
which I give her.
iv.
Use of ‘that’ instead of ‘where’ or ‘when’:
The house that I live is very
small.
This can be set right in two ways:
The house where I live is very
small. (or) The house that I live in is
very small.
Note:
In spoken English, however, you’ll hear:
The house I live in is very
small.
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